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"History oF Computers"
Computing hardware has
been an essential component of the process of calculation and data storage
since it became useful for numerical values to be processed and shared.
The
earliest computing hardware was probably some form of tally
stick; later recording devices include the Phoenician clay shapes which
represented counts of items, probably livestock or grains, in containers. These
seem to have been used by the merchants, accountants, and government officials
of the time.
Devices to aid computation have evolved from simple recording and counting devices through the abacus, the slide rule, and more recent electronic computers. Even today, an experienced abacus user using a device designed hundreds of years ago can sometimes complete basic calculations more quickly than an unskilled person using an electronic calculator - though for more complex calculations, computers out-perform even the most skilled human.
This
article presents the major developments in the history of computing hardware
and attempts to put them in context.
Earliest devices
Humanity has used devices to aid in computation for millennia.
Chinese and others frustrated with
counting on their fingers invented the Abacus
|
One example is a device for establishing equality by weight: the
classic scales, later used to symbolize equality in justice. Another is simple
enumeration: the checkered cloths of the counting houses served as simple data
structures for enumerating stacks of coins, by weight. A more
arithmetic-oriented machine is the abacus. One of the earliest machines
of this type was the
Chinese abacus.
First mechanical calculators
In 1623 Wilhelm Schickard built the first mechanical calculator
and thus became the father of the computing era.
Gears are at the heart of mechanical
devices like the Curta calculator
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Since his machine used techniques such as cogs and gears first
developed for clocks, it was also called a 'calculating clock'. It was put to
practical use by his friend Johannes Kepler, who revolutionized astronomy.
Machines by Blaise Pascal (the Pascaline, 1642) and Gottfried
Wilhelm von Leibniz (1671) followed. Around 1820, Charles Xavier Thomas created
the first successful, mass-produced mechanical calculator, the Thomas
Arithmometer, that could add, subtract, multiply, and divide. It was mainly
based on Leibniz's work. Mechanical calculators, like the base-ten addiator,
the comptometer, the Monroe, the Curta and the Addo-X remained in use until the
1970s.
1801: punched card technology
In 1801, Joseph-Marie Jacquard developed a loom in which the
pattern being woven was controlled by punched cards. The series of cards could
be changed without changing the mechanical design of the loom. This was a
landmark point in programmability.
The slide rule, a basic mechanical
calculator, facilitates multiplication and division
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In 1833, Charles Babbage moved on from developing his difference
engine to developing a more complete design, the analytical engine which would
draw directly on Jacquard's punch cards for its programming.
Herman
Hollerith invented a tabulating machine using punch cards in the 1880s.
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Charles Babbage
|
1835-1900s:
first programmable machines
The defining feature of a "universal computer" is
programmability, which allows the computer to emulate any other calculating
machine by changing a stored sequence of instructions.
In 1835 Charles Babbage described his analytical engine. It was
the plan of a general-purpose programmable computer, employing punch cards for
input and a steam engine for power. One crucial invention was to use gears for
the function served by the beads of an abacus. In a real sense, computers all
contain automatic abacuses (technically called the ALU or floating-point unit).
Augusta
Ada King, Countess of Lovelace
|
1930s-1960s: desktop calculators
In 1948, the Curta was introduced. This was a small, portable, mechanical
calculator that was about the size of a pepper grinder. Over time, during the
1950s and 1960s a variety of different brands of mechanical calculator appeared
on the market.
The first desktop electronic calculator was probably Sumlock
Comptometer's 1961 Anita C/VIII, which used a Nixie tube display and 177
subminiature thyratron tubes. In June 1963, Friden introduced the four-function
EC-130. It had an all-transistor design, 13-digit capacity on a 5-inch CRT, and
introduced reverse Polish notation (RPN) to the calculator market at a price of
$2200. The model EC-132 added square root and reciprocal functions. In 1965,
Wang Laboratories produced the LOCI-2, a 10-digit transistorized desktop
calculator that used a Nixie tube display and could compute logarithms.
Pre-1940 analog computers
Since computers were rare in this era, the solutions were often
hard-coded into paper forms such as graphs and nomograms, which could then
allow analog solutions to problems, such as the distribution of pressures and
temperatures in a heating system.
Some of the most widely deployed analog computers included devices
for aiming weapons, such as the Norden bombsight and artillery aiming computers
for battleships. Some of these stayed in use for decades after WWII.
Hybrid analog computers, controlled by digital electronics,
remained in substantial use into the 1950s and 1960s, and later in some
specialised applications.
1940s: first
electrical digital computers
The era of modern computing began with a flurry of development
before and during World War II, as electronic circuits, relays, capacitors and
vacuum tubes replaced mechanical equivalents and digital calculations replaced
analog calculations. The computers designed and constructed then have sometimes
been called 'first generation' computers. First generation computers such as
the Atanasoff-Berry Computer, Z3 and Colossus were built by hand using circuits
containing relays or vacuum valves (tubes), and often used punched cards or
punched paper tape for input and as the main (non-volatile) storage medium.
Temporary, or working storage, was provided by acoustic delay lines (which use
the propagation time of sound in a medium such as wire to store data) or by
Williams tubes (which use the ability of a television picture tube to store and
retrieve data). By 1954, magnetic core memory was rapidly displacing most other
forms of temporary storage, and dominated the field through the mid-1970s.
American developments
In 1937, Claude Shannon
produced his master's thesis at MIT that implemented Boolean algebra using
electronic relays and switches for the first time in history. Entitled A
Symbolic Analysis of Relay and Switching Circuits, Shannon's thesis essentially
founded practical digital circuit design.
In November of 1937, George Stibitz, then working at Bell Labs,
completed a relay-based computer he dubbed the "Model K" (for
"kitchen", where he had assembled it), which calculated using binary
addition. Bell Labs thus authorized a full research program in late 1938 with
Stibitz at the helm. Their Complex Number Calculator, completed January 8,
1940, was able to calculate complex numbers. In a demonstration to the American
Mathematical Society conference at Dartmouth College on September 11, 1940,
Stibitz was able to send the Complex Number Calculator remote commands over
telephone lines by a teletype. It was the first computing machine ever used
remotely over a phone line. Some participants of the conference who witnessed
the demonstration were John Von Neumann, John Mauchly, and Norbert Wiener, who
wrote about it in his memoirs.
Colossus
was used to break German ciphers during World War II
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Observational Child Study
Observational
Child Study
observational study draws inferences about the
possible effect of a treatment on subjects, where the assignment of subjects
into a treated group versus a control
group is
outside the control of the investigator. This
is in contrast with controlled experiments, such as randomized controlled trials, where
each subject is randomly assigned to a treated group or a control group before
the start of the treatment.
Emotional
and behavioral disorders (EBD)
is a broad category which is used commonly in educational settings, to group a
range of more specific perceived difficulties of children and adolescents. Both
general definitions as well as concrete diagnosis of EBD may be controversial
as the observed behavior may depend on many factors. Students who have
emotional and behavioral disturbances exhibit significant behavioral excesses
or deficits. These terms refer to patterns of behavior that depart
significantly from the expectations of others. In recent years,
"behavioral disorders" has gained favor over "emotional
disturbance" as a more accurate label leading to more objective
decision-making and fewer negative connotations.
A.
The list of behaviors of the child are
according to my observations:
Characteristics
The causes of emotional
disturbance have not been adequately determined. Although various factors such
as heredity, brain disorder, diet, stress, and family functioning have been
suggested as possible causes, research has not shown any of these factors to be
the direct cause of behavior problems.
Some of the
characteristics and behaviors seen in children who have emotional disturbances
include:
Internalizing
disorders
A child who internalizes
their emotions is said to be suffering from Depression, and experience loss of interest in activities including school
work.
Children who internalize
can also suffer from Anxiety, Separation Anxiety, Fears and Phobias (especially in school), Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD), and Panic Disorder.
Externalizing
disorders
Words and phrases that
are commonly used with children who externalize are extroverted,
under-controlled, and acting out.
Externalizing Disorders
includes Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and Conduct Disorder.These children act out
their emotions instead of holding them in. Fighting, bullying, cursing, and
other forms of violence are often seen in children who externalize.
How I Observe & Record Child Behavior?
Often
a child's behavior is more important than how they score on a test. While
grades and test scores are necessary, behavior is a large indicator of how a
child will get along outside of school and with other people. When deciding to
implement a plan to change the behavior or to keep track of how a plan is
working, it becomes necessary to observe and record the behavior.
The
following are the things I considered in my observations:
Define the behavior. This needs to be done in
specific and observable terms. If the behavior is too broad, it will cause the
information that is recorded to be inaccurate because those writing down the
information will not be sure what counts.
My observation’s location is in the
school, and my observation done in three consecutive days that dated last
January 4, 5 and 6, 2012
How will I document my observation
report.
Child observation reports are created for a
variety of reasons. Child observation reports must contain specific information
about the child in a clear and concise manner to be useful to those who are
reviewing the report.
The following are the things I considered in my
observations:
Rate
Date
: January 4, 2012 ( first day)
Around 11:00 am to 12:05 pm
Dracy, (name of the student)
Answers and colored his activity in
his workbook ( science) pp. 102- 105
Date
: January 5, 2012 (second day)
Around 8:00 o’ clock in the morning,
Darcy’s teacher asks him to lead the prayer in the minimal voice and without
maximum supervision.
Date:
January 6, 2012 (third day)
After break around 9:45 am, Darcy put
back the tray to its proper place, with his coach assistance, he washed his
lunchbox together with his coach in f minutes.
Duration
Darcy answers his activity in almost
30 mins. and
Darcy takes his snacks for only 15
mins.
Latency
Darcy get back to work after 15
minutes of playing after he ate.
Topography
(shape of the behavior)
Darcy
colored his activity book in a nice way of coloring.
Darcy
can make small creatures like small dinosaurs through clay.
Darcy
did the matching type very well.
Force
Darcy
punch his classmate’s back so his sped teacher told him to face the wall in 10
minutes.
Darcy
cries and shout when his dinosaur book is missing and that incident last in 20
minutes.
Locus
(place)
Darcy
punch his classmate in their classroom and Darcy make face the wall in their
classroom.
The
tools I used for observation
I
used anecdotal record because:
Anecdotal
records are brief narrative accounts describing an incident of the child
behavior.Anecdotes describe what happened in a factual objective manner telling
how it happened when and where it happened and what was said and done. And anecdotal
records are written after the incident has occurred.
I
used time sampling in my sample behavior because:
The observer waits for
and then record a specific preselected behavior. Study the frequency of the
behavior, what triggers the behavior.
ProFile of the
child
Name: Darcy S. Uy
Age: 8
Gender: female
Birthday: November 20, 2004
Grade
level: Grade 2
School: New Era University
Regular
Teacher : Rachelle Gojo Cruz
Sped
Teacher: Mary Jane Montemayor
Categorized
as: Child with Emotional
Behavioral Disorder
Name
of the father: Alvin
Tan
Occupation: Businessman
Name
of the mother: Dahlia
Uy
Occupation:
Manager
Monday, January 16, 2012
A computer is a programmable machine designed to sequentially and automatically carry out a sequence of arithmetic or logical operations. The particular sequence of operations can be changed readily, allowing the computer to solve more than one kind of problem. An important class of computer operations on some computing platforms is the accepting of input from human operators and the output of results formatted for human consumption. The interface between the computer and the human operator is known as the user interface.
Conventionally a computer consists of some form of memory for data storage, at least one element that carries out arithmetic and logic operations, and a sequencing and control element that can change the order of operations based on the information that is stored. Peripheral devices allow information to be entered from an external source, and allow the results of operations to be sent out.
A computer's processing unit executes series of instructions that make it read, manipulate and then store data. Conditional instructions change the sequence of instructions as a function of the current state of the machine or its environment.
The first electronic digital computers were developed in the mid-20th century (1940–1945). Originally, they were the size of a large room, consuming as much power as several hundred modern personal computers (PCs).In this era mechanical analog computers were used for military applications.
Modern computers based on integrated circuits are millions to billions of times more capable than the early machines, and occupy a fraction of the space. Simple computers are small enough to fit into mobile devices, and mobile computers can be powered by small batteries. Personal computers in their various forms are icons of the Information Age and are what most people think of as "computers". However, the embeddedcomputers found in many devices from mp3 players to fighter aircraft and from toys toindustrial robots are the most numerous.
History of computing
The first use of the word "computer" was recorded in 1613, referring to a person who carried out calculations, or computations, and the word continued with the same meaning until the middle of the 20th century. From the end of the 19th century onwards, the word began to take on its more familiar meaning, describing a machine that carries out computations.
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